Fluid Flow & Aerodynamics
why things fly, and why the usual explanation is wrong
Concept

Drag polar — where it appears

The relation between a wing's drag and its lift, usually a parabola whose curvature is set by the aspect ratio. It is where every performance quantity comes from, and its shape decides the best speeds to fly and to glide at.

Named by 9 essays across 3 fields — each of them below, with the objects they name alongside it.

A wing's two drags, and the lift at which they are equal. Friction drag and induced drag plotted against lift coefficient, with their sum above them. Friction is flat, because a surface costs the same whatever the wing is doing; induced drag rises as the square of the lift. The total is least where the two are equal, and that is also the point of best glide.

The two drags a wing pays

A wing pays for having a surface, and it pays for making lift with a finite span. One of those bills falls as it flies faster and the other rises, so there is a speed at which the total is least — and the condition for it turns out to be that the two are equal.

viscous · Drag budget The speed for least drag is not the speed for least power. Drag and power against airspeed, in units of the speed at which drag is least. Power is drag times speed, so its minimum sits slower — at the fourth root of a third of the least-drag speed, which is 0.76 of it. Flying for range and flying for endurance are therefore different speeds, and the difference is not a rule of thumb.

The cheapest way to stay up

There is a speed at which an aircraft's drag is least, and a different, slower speed at which its power is least. The ratio between them is the fourth root of a third — a number that does not depend on the aircraft, the altitude, or anything else about the flight.

viscous · Drag budget Three times the wind, on a reach. The polar diagram: boat speed in every direction, as a multiple of the true wind speed, for drag angles of 14 and 6 degrees. The shaded wedge at the top is the no-go zone, whose half-angle is exactly the sum of the two drag angles. Everywhere outside about twice that angle the boat is faster than the wind, and the maximum is 2.92 times the wind at 110 degrees — which is 1/sin λ at 90° + λ, both checked.

Faster than the wind that drives it

An ice yacht in a fifteen-knot breeze does forty. That is not a trick and it does not need a special sail — it follows from two drag angles and a triangle, and the best speed a boat can reach is one over the sine of their sum.

applied · Sailing The fastest course is never the one towards the mark. Boat speed and speed made good against the course sailed. Speed rises steadily as the boat bears away, but what counts is the component along the direction wanted, and that has a maximum well off the straight line — at 55.0 degrees going upwind and 145.0 going down. Both optima are found here by search and agree with 45° + λ/2 and 135° + λ/2 to six figures.

The fastest way is not the straight one

A boat racing to a mark dead upwind sails seventy per cent further than the distance to it, and arrives first. The best angle is forty-five degrees plus half the apparent wind angle, it comes out of one line of trigonometry, and the same argument says to gybe downwind rather than run.

applied · Sailing Induced drag against aspect ratio, all at C_L = 0.6. Induced drag for wings of different aspect ratio, each flown at whatever incidence makes it carry the same lift coefficient. The drag falls as one over the aspect ratio, so the longest wing here pays a fraction of what the shortest does for exactly the same load.

The span is the whole story

Induced drag is the price of having ends, and the only thing that lowers it at a given lift is putting those ends further apart. Not more area, not a better section, not a cleverer planform — span, and everything else is a correction of a few per cent to it.

circulation · Finite wing The mean lift is not the lift at the mean angle. A finite wing's lift curve, with a gust distribution of standard deviation 3° about a mean angle of 10° drawn along the foot. The wing spends its time spread across that distribution, so what it averages is the average of the curve: 0.7951 against the 0.8368 the mean angle promises, a deficit of 5.0 per cent. Nothing has stalled, and no gust has taken the wing past the stall angle: the deficit comes entirely from the curve bending over, and it is there at every angle where the curve is not straight.

The lift at the mean angle

A wing in rough air flies at every angle in turn, so what it averages is the average of its lift curve rather than the lift at its average angle. Where the curve bends over near the stall the two differ by five per cent at three degrees of gust and by fourteen at five, and the drag goes the other way.

circulation · Gust Why a flat plate has no drag, drawn as a triangle. A flat plate at incidence with the three forces that must balance. Pressure can only act along the plate's normal, so the pressure force is the arrow perpendicular to the plate. Kutta–Joukowski says the resultant is perpendicular to the free stream. The difference between the two directions is the suction force at the leading edge, which acts forwards along the plate and is exactly L sin α. Without it the plate would have a drag of L sin α, and an inviscid fluid does not permit one.

A finite force from an infinite speed

Pressure on a flat plate can only act along the plate's normal. Kutta–Joukowski says the force is perpendicular to the free stream. Those two directions differ by the angle of attack, and the discrepancy is made up at a single point where the velocity is infinite and the area is zero.

circulation · Leading edge suction A force ceiling ends the similarity: a breeze makes the boat slower as a share of the wind. Speed made good to windward as a fraction of the true wind, on the best course for each wind, for a rig that is flattened once the righting moment binds and for one that is reefed, with the hull's drag angle held at 6°. Below 3.70 m/s the two are the same boat, and the fraction does not depend on the wind — 1.122 at every speed, which is the similarity the two-angle polar rests on. Above it the flattened rig's fraction falls: 0.918 at 6 m/s, 0.572 at 10 m/s, 0.321 at 15 m/s and 0.169 at 20 m/s. The reefed rig's stays at 1.122, because a reefed sail keeps its least drag angle and the hull's angle is held. Once a force is limited, the triangle is no longer the same shape in every wind.

A breeze the boat cannot use

The two-angle polar makes a boat's speed a fixed fraction of the wind, in any wind. A righting moment ends that at 3.7 metres a second on the beat. Past it the crew must spill force, a flattened sail's drag angle climbs, and the best course to windward moves closer to the wind rather than away from it — which 45° + λ/2 cannot say, because λ now depends on the course.

applied · Sailing A keel pulls the best beat 12 degrees closer to the wind. Speed made good as a fraction of the wind against the course, in 3 m/s: for the boat with its keel solved as a wing, and for a boat whose λ is fixed at 25.69°, the value the keeled boat has on its own best course. The search puts the keeled boat's best beat at 45.83°; the fixed-angle rule puts it at 45° + λ/2 = 57.84°. Pointing higher loads the keel towards its best lift coefficient — 0.130 at 40° against 0.076 at 60° — and lowers its drag angle, so the curve peaks early and falls away faster on the far side. The fixed-angle curve promises 0.653 of the wind; the keeled boat can make 0.553, and only by sailing twelve degrees higher than the rule says.

A keel flies wherever the course puts it

A keel is a wing whose lift is whatever side force the rig happens to make, so its lift coefficient is chosen by the course and the wind rather than by its designer. Solved that way, the hull's drag angle stops being a property of the boat: it pulls the best beat twelve degrees closer to the wind, halves the reaching speed a fixed angle predicts, and finally charges for reefing.

applied · Sailing

Named alongside it

The objects these essays reach for when they reach for this one.

Induced dragGlide ratioLift coefficientModel limitApparent windSkin frictionVelocity made goodAspect ratioDimensionlessDragEfficiencyLifting line

All concepts