Fluid Flow & Aerodynamics
why things fly, and why the usual explanation is wrong
Concept

Convection — where it appears

Motion driven by buoyancy rather than by an imposed pressure, and separately the carrying of a quantity by a flow. In the first sense its onset has a closed-form threshold in the Rayleigh number, which is one of the few exact stability results in the subject.

Named by 5 essays across 2 fields — each of them below, with the objects they name alongside it.

Every disturbance has its own threshold; one of them is lowest. The Rayleigh number at which a disturbance of horizontal wavenumber a becomes neutral, Ra = (π² + a²)³/a². Every wavenumber has a threshold and the layer goes unstable at the lowest of them, which a golden-section search on this curve puts at a = 2.221441 and Ra = 657.5114 — the exact π/√2 and 27π⁴/4 to fourteen digits. Below the curve the layer conducts and nothing moves.

A threshold with a closed form

A layer of fluid heated from below sits still until buoyancy overcomes both diffusions at once, and then it convects. Unlike every other threshold in this field, that one is an eigenvalue with an exact answer, and the answer is 27π⁴/4.

turbulence · Convection Three equations, and the set they never leave. The Lorenz trajectory at r = 28, projected on x and z, after the transient has been discarded. It never repeats, never leaves, and never crosses itself in three dimensions. The Lyapunov exponent printed beside it is measured on this system by separating a nearby pair, so the claim of sensitive dependence is a computation.

Three numbers left of a fluid

Saltzman truncated convection to three Fourier modes and Lorenz studied what was left. The result changed science, and it stopped being a description of a fluid at about a fifth of the way to the parameter everybody quotes it at.

turbulence · Convection A millionth, doubling every three-quarters of a second. The separation of two trajectories started a millionth apart, on log axes against time. It grows as a straight line until it saturates at the size of the attractor, and the slope of that line is the largest Lyapunov exponent — measured here on the system by renormalising a nearby pair, not quoted. Sensitive dependence is what the straightness of the line means.

A millionth is enough

Two trajectories a millionth apart separate by a factor of e every three-quarters of a second, so a millionfold improvement in the measurement buys about ten seconds of extra prediction. That exchange rate, and not the size of the error, is what limits forecasting.

turbulence · Convection Three thresholds, and none of them is one. The neutral curves for a layer heated from below, computed by taking the smallest eigenvalue of the marginal-stability operator at each horizontal wavenumber. Every curve diverges at both ends — a cell wider than the layer has to carry heat sideways for ever, a narrower one loses it to conduction — so each has a minimum, and that minimum is the critical Rayleigh number. Two free surfaces give 657.5, one rigid and one free 1100.7, two rigid walls 1707.8. Nothing but the boundary condition differs, and it carries a factor of 2.6.

The threshold the walls decide

A layer heated from below convects at a Rayleigh number of 1707.762, and nothing whatever happens at one. The free–free case has a closed form and the two that do not differ from it by a factor of 2.6 — produced by nothing but what the top and bottom surfaces are permitted to do.

turbulence · Convection A flat plate's layer is pushed along by the pressure its own warmth leaves, strongest at the wall. Across the layer of a horizontal plate warm side up, in air: the velocity scaled to its peak, the temperature excess, and the along-plate push −∂p′/∂x scaled to its wall value, against the similarity distance η = (y/x)·Gr^⅕. The push is the hydrostatic deficit under the warm fluid, (2/5)(ηθ − P), 0.694 at the wall in units of gβΔT·Gr^−⅕, falling to nothing at the layer's edge; the velocity peaks at η = 1.58 and the warm layer ends near 5.93.

Laid flat, a warm plate is pushed by the pressure of its own layer

A warm vertical plate drives its layer with buoyancy acting along it. Lay the plate flat and buoyancy acts across the layer instead, so the only push along it is the pressure deficit its own warm fluid leaves under the cold — deeper where the layer is thicker. That push gives a heat transfer growing as the fifth root of the Grashof number, not the fourth, works only on the plate's upper face, and survives a tilt of a degree for a third of a metre.

regimes · Grashof

Named alongside it

The objects these essays reach for when they reach for this one.

Rayleigh–Bénard convectionBuoyancyDynamical systemEigenvalueLinear stabilityThe Lorenz systemModel limitRayleigh numberTruncationBifurcationBoundary conditionBoundary layer

All concepts